Stephen Blake, Sharon L. Deem, Samantha Strindberg, Fiona Maisels, Ludovic Momont, Inogwabini-Bila Isia, Iain Douglas-Hamilton, William B. Karesh, Michael D. Kock

Roadless Wilderness Area Determines Forest Elephant Movements in the Congo Basin

PLoS ONE 3(10): e3546. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0003546
2008

Abstract

A dramatic expansion of road building is underway in the Congo Basin fuelled by private enterprise, international aid, and government aspirations. Among the great wilderness areas on earth, the Congo Basin is outstanding for its high biodiversity, particularly mobile megafauna including forest elephants (Loxodonta africana cyclotis). The abundance of many mammal species in the Basin increases with distance from roads due to hunting pressure, but the impacts of road proliferation on the movements of individuals are unknown. We investigated the ranging behaviour of forest elephants in relation to roads and roadless wilderness by fitting GPS telemetry collars onto a sample of 28 forest elephants living in six priority conservation areas. We show that the size of roadless wilderness is a strong determinant of home range size in this species. Though our study sites included the largest wilderness areas in central African forests, none of 4 home range metrics we calculated, including core area, tended toward an asymptote with increasing wilderness size, suggesting that uninhibited ranging in forest elephants no longer exists. Furthermore we show that roads outside protected areas which are not protected from hunting are a formidable barrier to movement while roads inside protected areas are not. Only 1 elephant from our sample crossed an unprotected road. During crossings her mean speed increased 14-fold compared to normal movements. Forest elephants are increasingly confined and constrained by roads across the Congo Basin which is reducing effective habitat availability and isolating populations, significantly threatening long term conservation efforts. If the current road development trajectory continues, forest wildernesses and the forest elephants they contain will collapse

Blake, S.
The Ecology of Forest Elephant Distribution and its Implications for Conservation
Ph.D. dissertation, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh 
(2002)

Blake, S., Bouché, P., Rasmussen, H., Orlando, A., and Douglas-Hamilton, I.
The Last Sahelian Elephants. Ranging Behavior, Population Status and Recent History of the Desert Elephants of Mali
(2003)

Introduction
Elephants once occupied a largely continuous range across West Africa, from the coastal forests
to the Sahara. The collapse of these once extensive populations, caused by poaching for the
ivory trade, human encroachment and the concurrent lack of conservation and scientific
attention, has been alarming. Remaining populations are small, highly fragmented and
geographically isolated, with over half now containing fewer than 100 individuals (Roth and
Douglas-Hamilton 1991; Said et al. 1995; Barnes et al. 1998; Barnes 1999). The population
living in the Gourma, which before this survey was estimated to be between 300 and 800, is one
of the most important in the West African region and is accorded a high priority in the regional
elephant strategy of the IUCN (Worldwide Conservation Union).
The African elephants (Loxodonta africana) of Mali’s remote Gourma region and extreme
northern Burkina Faso are the northernmost in existence since the extinction of the
Mauritanian elephants in the Assaba mountains in the 1980s (Douglas-Hamilton 1979, 1992).
They are the only remnant of a once-extensive population found across the Sahel. Despite their
ecological and conservation importance, these elephants are scientifically poorly known.
Estimates of the total population to date have been derived from interviews with local people
who have extensive knowledge, from incomplete aerial reconnaissance (Sayer 1977; La Marche
1980; Douglas-Hamilton 1979; Pierre Vernet 2002 pers. comm.; Anne Orlando 2000 pers.
comm.), and from extrapolation from a short-term dung count (figure 3)(Jachmann 1991).
Bruno La Marche, a French schoolteacher, made a special study of these elephants throughout
the 1970s, and although he never published his results they were used by Sayer (1977) and
Douglas-Hamilton (1979). According to La Marche, the elephants lived in relative harmony
with nomadic Touareg pastoralists in the 1970s, a coexistence that continued in the 1980s and
1990s (Douglas-Hamilton and Douglas-Hamilton 1992; Olivier 1983; Jachmann 1991; Youssef
2001). However, gradual changes in climate and human land use were thought to be increasing
competition between people and elephants, with potentially negative consequences for both.
The elephants’ behaviour is thought to be highly adapted to conditions of extreme aridity for
most of the year. Understanding the movements and ecology of these elephants is critical for
land-use planning of the Gourma, if the elephants are to be conserved.
The Gourma elephants share the near-desert habitat with nomadic and transhumant
pastoralists and their cattle, goats, sheep, donkeys and camels (Jachmann 1991). Local
Tamasheq (Touareg) and Peulh (Fulani, Fulbé) pastoralists, and the more settled Souraih and
Dogon view the elephants as symbols of natural well-being, and conflict between humans and
elephants has traditionally been low (Y Tamboura 2002, pers. comm.). Humans and elephants
have been reported as partitioning their resource use, with elephants often drinking only at
night while herdsmen water their stock during the day (Pringle and Diakité 1992). However, we
observed elephants and Touareg drinking and sharing the same pastures by day within 200
metres of each other on the first day of our expedition and throughout the last two weeks of
April 2000. Poaching by local nomadic peoples has traditionally been very low; however, until
the 1980s, illegal hunting by urban Malians from vehicles was a threat to the Gourma elephants
(Olivier 1983).

Blake, S., Bouché, P., Rasmussen, H., Orlando, A., and Douglas-Hamilton, I.
Les derniers éléphants du Sahel. Comportement migratoire, état de la population et histoire récente des éléphants du désert du Mali
(2003)

Introduction
Les éléphants occupaient jadis un vaste territoire continu à travers toute l’Afrique de l’Ouest,
s’étendant des forêts côtières au Sahara. Le déclin de ces populations autrefois répandues, sous
l’effet du braconnage destiné au commerce de l’ivoire, de l’empiètement humain, et combinés à
l’absence de conservation et d’attention scientifique, se produit à un rythme alarmant. Les
populations qui subsistent sont de petite taille, extrêmement fragmentées et géographiquement
isolées, dont plus de la moitié ne contient plus aujourd’hui qu’une centaine d’individus à peine
(Roth and Douglas-Hamilton 1991 ; Said et al. 1995 ; Barnes et al. 1998 ; Barnes 1999). La
population habitant le Gourma, que l’on estimait avant l’enquête comprise entre 300 et 800
individus, est l’une des plus importantes de la région d’Afrique de l’Ouest et bénéficie d’un
statut hautement prioritaire dans la stratégie régionale de l’IUCN en matière d’éléphants.
Les éléphants africains (Loxodonta africana) de la région reculée du Gourma au Mali et de
l’extrême nord du Burkina Faso sont les éléphants les plus au nord existant aujourd’hui depuis
l’extinction des éléphants mauritaniens des montagnes Assaba dans les années 1980 (Douglas-
Hamilton 1979, 1992). Ils sont les seuls survivants d’une population autrefois répandue dans
tout le Sahel. En dépit de leur importance en termes écologiques et de conservation, ces
éléphants sont peu connus d’un point de vue scientifique. Les estimations dont on dispose
jusqu’ici sur la population totale proviennent d’entretiens avec les habitants de la région
possédant une connaissance approfondie en la matière, de reconnaissances aériennes
incomplètes (Sayer 1977 ; La Marche 1980 ; Douglas-Hamilton 1979 ; Pierre Vernet 2002
comm. pers. ; Anne Orlando 2000, comm. pers.) et de l’extrapolation effectuée à partir de
prélèvements d’excréments sur une courte période (Jachmann 1991).
Dans les années 1970, un enseignant français du nom de Bruno La Marche mena une étude
portant spécifiquement sur ces éléphants et, bien que ses résultats ne furent jamais publiés, ils
furent utilisés par Sayer (1977) et Douglas-Hamilton (1979). Selon La Marche, les éléphants
vivaient à cette époque en relative harmonie avec les peuples nomades de pasteurs Touareg, une
coexistence qui se poursuivit dans les années 1980 et 1990 (Douglas-Hamilton et Douglas-
Hamilton 1992 ; Olivier 1983 ; Jachmann 1991 ; Youssef 2001). Or, on pensait que les
changements graduels au niveau du climat et de l’utilisation du sol par les populations
humaines étaient des facteurs de compétition croissante entre les individus et les éléphants,
phénomène aux effets potentiellement nuisibles tant pour les hommes que pour les animaux.
Le comportement des éléphants paraît hautement adapté aux conditions d’extrême aridité
sévissant la majeure partie de l’année. Si l’on entend conserver ces éléphants, il est impératif de
comprendre leurs déplacements et leur écologie pour être en mesure de procéder à
l’aménagement adéquat du territoire du Gourma.
Les éléphants du Gourma partagent l’habitat semi-désertique avec les pasteurs nomades et
transhumants, ainsi que leurs bétail, chèvres, moutons, ânes et chameaux (Jachmann 1991). Les
pasteurs locaux Tamasheq (touareg) et Peulh (Fulani, Fulbé), ainsi que les populations plus
sédentaires de Souraih et Dogon considèrent l’éléphant comme un symbole de bien-être naturel
et les conflits entre les populations humaines et les éléphants sont traditionnellement peu
existants (Y Tamboura 2002, comm. pers.). Il a été signalé que les humains et les éléphants
partageraient l’utilisation des ressources, les éléphants s’abreuvant souvent la nuit, alors que les
10
pâtres feraient boire leurs troupeaux dans la journée (Pringle and Diakité 1992). Or, le premier
jour de notre expédition et pendant les deux dernières semaines d’avril 2000, nous avons
observé des éléphants et touareg partageant le jour les mêmes ressources en eau et pâturages à
moins de 200 mètres les uns des autres. Alors que le braconnage par les peuples nomades de la
région est traditionnellement très rare, la chasse illégale motorisée pratiquée par les populations
urbaines du Mali constituait en revanche, jusque dans les années 1980, une menace à l’égard
des éléphants du Gourma (Olivier 1983). Peut-être du fait de la tolérance des populations
locales, du caractère isolé de la région et de la taille et qualité réduites des défenses des
éléphants subsistant aujourd’hui dans le Gourma, leur population a largement échapé au
braconnage intensif des années 1980 ayant entraîné le déclin de toutes les populations qui
occupaient autrefois l’ensemble du Sahel.
Une tendance récente de baisse des précipitations, les programmes de développement agricole
et de ressources en eau, la disparition des schémas ancestraux de migration du bétail et la
sédentarisation croissante des populations humaines concourent à transformer les rapports
traditionnels dynamiques, mais stables, entre les éléphants, les hommes et l’écosystème sahélien
(Jachmann 1991). La compétition entre les hommes et les éléphants vis à vis des ressources (sols,
cultures et eau), de plus en plus forte, constitue une source d’accroissement des conflits (Olivier
1984 ; Jachmann 1991 ; Pringle and Diakité 1992).
Selon les observations de La Marche (dans Douglas-Hamilton 1979), les éléphants du Gourma
effectueraient une migration long et circulaire dans le sens contraire des aiguilles d’une montre
(fig. 3). Il pensait qu’il s’agissait là d’une forme d’adaptation nécessaire aux conditions
écologiques difficiles. La Mache et autre rechercheurs (Jachmann 1991 et Niagité 1995 ) ont
cartographié la route avec l’aide des informations fournies par les habitants du Gourma, mais
aussi, dans le cas de Jachmann, en suivant la piste des excréments prélevés sur les transects le
long du parcours des éléphants. Le suivi des éléphants par radiopistage n’avait jamais été réalisé
avant cette étude.
En janvier 2000, Save the Elephants et la Wildlife Conservation Society apportèrent leur
concours à Anne Orlando, une étudiante américaine en doctorat de l’Université de Californie,
Davis, pour démarrer un projet de recherche sur la population d’éléphants subsistant dans le
Gourma, à l’invitation de la DNCN.
Le but de cette étude était d’examiner les schémas de déplacement des éléphants et leur
stratégies de survie en milieu semi-désertique. Elle avait pour mission d’intégrer les données
acquises par images satellite sur la disponibilité des ressources aux déplacements des éléphant
enregistrés grâce aux colliers GPS. Ces informations

Blake, S., Douglas-Hamilton, I. & Karesh W.
GPS telemetry of forest elephants in Central Africa: results of a preliminary study
Afr. J. Ecol. 39: 178-186.
(2001)

Introduction
Few data exist on the ranging behaviour of forest elephants. A feasibility study on the use of GPS telemetry as a tool to study ranging, seasonal movements and distribution was implemented in the Dzanga-Sangha and Nouabale¨-Ndoki National Parks Complex of Central African Republic and Congo. The study consisted of two parts - a thorough hand-held testing of an elephant
GPS telemetry collar under tropical forest conditions and the deployment of collars on two elephants. During the feasibility study the system performance was satisfactory; GPS fix acquisition success rate, VHF and UHF collar-researcher communications were dequate. Two elephants, a mature bull and an adult female, were immobilized and fitted with GPS collars in October 1998. After deployment, the female's GPS collar performed well initially, but in less than a month the GPS within the collar stopped acquiring fixes. She was subsequently located usingVHF tracking. The male was never relocated strongly suggesting complete failure of the collar. Despite these setbacks, the small amount of data retrieved provide an important first insight into forest elephant ranging and daily activity patterns, with significant conservation implications. When technical difficulties of reliability are overcome, GPS telemetry will provide an  exceptionally useful tool in forest elephant research and management.

Cerling, TE, Wittemyer, G, Rasmussen, HB, Vollrath, F, Cerling, CE, Robinson, T, Douglas-Hamilton
Stable isotopes in elephant hair document migration patterns and diet changes
PNAS January 10, 2006 vol. 103 no. 2 371–373 
(2006)

We use chronologies of stable isotopes measured from elephant (Loxodonta africana) hair to determine migration patterns and seasonal diet changes in elephants in and near Samburu National Reserve in northern Kenya. Stable carbon isotopes record diet changes, principally enabling differentiation between browse and tropical grasses, which use the C3 and C4 photosynthetic pathways, respectively; stable nitrogen isotopes record regional patterns
related to aridity, offering insight into localized ranging behavior. Isotopically identified range shifts were corroborated by global positioning system radio tracking data of the studied individuals. Comparison of the stable isotope record in the hair of one migrant individual with that of a resident population shows important differences in feeding and ranging behavior over time. Our analysis indicates that differences are the result of excursions into mesic environments coupled with intermittent crop raiding by the migrant individual. Variation in diet, quantified by using stable isotopes, can offer insight into diet-related wildlife behavior.

Douglas-Hamilton, I.
‘May he walk in peace’ - A tribute to PRINCE BERNHARD OF THE NETHERLANDS ( 1911 – 2004 )
SWARA October – December 2004 
(2004)

Iain Douglas-Hamilton remembers a man who fought long and hard to advance the conservation cause in Africa – and around the world.

Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands died of cancer on 1 December 2004 at the age of 93. While he had a long and distinguished career in Europe’s turbulent 20th Century, he will be remembered in Africa primarily as one who tirelessly promoted the wildlife cause over many years. All his life he used a position of privilege to fight for matters of principle. As a German Prince he married Princess Juliana of the Dutch royal family. When Germany invaded his adopted country he backed the Free Dutch at a time when it looked as though the Nazis could never be defeated. He became a Dutchman among the Dutch, and a symbol of the resistance. And when the allies finally triumphed he never forgot the ordinary people who had joined the resistance. To the end of his days, any resistance fighter, however humble, could approach the Prince if he or she needed support. After World War Two he helped to rebuild the economy of a shattered country,travelling on government missions all over the world. He founded the Bilderberg Group, a debating forum for politicians, businesspeople and other prominent figures. Always a personable consort to Queen Juliana, he had a great sense of humour, a good memory for names and faces, and he mixed easily with people from all walks of life...

Douglas-Hamilton, I.
The Ecology and Behaviour of the African Elephant
PhD thesis University of Oxford
(1972)

The ability of the African elephant Loxodonta africana africana, (Blumembach, 1789) to transform the landscape from woodland and forest to grassland is now well known. Laws (1970b) remarked “after man himself, probably no other animal has had as great an effect on African habitats as the African bush elephant”. Another drastic agent is fire, which by preventing tree regeneration, makes irreversible changes in many areas where burning cannot be controlled. Consequently, “elephant problems” are now a feature of most National Parks and Reserves in which elephants live. Case histories of elephant-habitat interactions have been documented in the Kruger National Park in South Africa (Van Wyk & Fairall, 1969); the Zambezi (Uys, 1972) and Luangwa Valleys (Dodds & Patton,1968; Hanks, 1971) of Zambia, and the extensive literature covering Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania is reviewed by Laws (1970b).

In most places the habitat modification is thought to have resulted from local increases of elephants within the National Parks and Reserves concurrent with drastic reduction in their total range. Their former range throughout Africa and its continued decrease is well recorded. Neolithic rock etchings show that elephants ranged through the Sahara about 5,000 – 11,000 years before the present (Mauny, 1957). In classical times they were found along the Mediterranean seaboard from the Straits of Gibralter to Carthage (Pliny) and may even have ranged into Syria in about 1,000 A.D. (Sherborn, 1957). As recently as the sixteenth century they were found as far south as the Cape of Good Hope (Van Riebeck, 1653, in Shortridge, 1934). Most of the reduction in range can probably be attributed, to man’s expansion and methods of hunting. The Boer farmers and ivory hunters exterminated elephants in most areas south of the Limpopo (Gordon-Cumming, 1850; Bryden, 1903; Shortridge, 1934), until by the turn of the century only minute pockets were left in the Kaokoveldt, Knysna, and Addo Forests, and in the Kruger National Park (Stevenson-Hamilton, 1929). Having destroyed the elephant populations of South Africa, hunters turned their attention to East and Central Africa (Selous, 1908; Neumann, 1898; Bell, 1923). Fears were expressed that the African elephant was doomed to rapid extinction, (Lydekker, 1894; Simon, 1962) and this opinion was widely held for many years (Maxwell 1925).

Other factors than man may also have played a decisive role. It is probable that climatic changes may have forced the elephant out of the Sahara area, although The ecology and behaviour of the African Elephant - 1972 3 Laws (1970b) has suggested the possibility that the elephants themselves may have been largely responsible for the conversion of woodlands to desert, and that the Lake Rudolf area and Tsavo National Park in Kenya may provide recent and current examples of this process.

In East Africa the elephant decrease followed the South African pattern, until the introduction of Game Laws at the turn of the century, when indiscriminate shooting of elephants for the ivory trade gradually came under control (Simon, 1962). Their range however continued to decrease. In Uganda it has been estimated that elephants in 1929 ranged over 70 per cent of the country but by 1959 this area had decreased to 17 per cent (Brooks & Buss, 1962).

The actual buildup in numbers within the Parks and Reserves has been harder to measure, partly due to the late stage at which aerial counts were first introduced and partly because differences in technique of aerial censuses often made
it difficult to compare census results of different years with confidence (E. Afr. Agri. For. J., 1969, Special issue 39). However, it is almost certain that present elephant densities have greatly increased locally because of drastic reduction in their range, and census data of varying degrees of certainty support this (Glover, 1963; Buechner, et al., 1963; Buss & Savidge, 1966; Pienaar, et. al. 1966; Lamprey et. al. 1967; Watson & Bell, 1969; Savidge, 1968; Laws & Parker, 1968; Laws, 1969b; Field, 1971).

Douglas-Hamilton, I. and Canney, S.
Preliminary assemblage and analysis of GIS data
Save the Elephants 
(2005)

Introduction
A full account of the movements of three elephants radiotracked using GIS technology between March 2000 and July 2001 is reported in the report entitled The Last Sahelian Elephants by Blake et al (2002). This report gives the detailed seasonal movements and speeds and provides the most up to date record of the range and utilization of the Gourma by elephants. However the sample size of three animals is too small and the tracking period too short to describe the entire range, and those elephants living in the Gossi area to the east were not successfully radio-tracked at all. With our current project a high emphasis has been given on acquiring other GIS layers and further information on the full range of these elephants. Additional analysis of the radio-tracking data has been made against human settlement, administrative boundaries, and human population densities. Here we report on the additional data acquired in 2004 and how it relates to what we know so far about the elephants movements and range.
This report begins by addressing progress in compiling and organising GIS data. This work has enabled an assessment of data quality and availability. Subsequent sections document the additional information produced using the data acquired in 2004 followed by tentative conclusions, and the follow-up work required.
2. Compilation of GIS data
2.1 Data collection and generation
The data gathered is summarized in Table 1 together with its source and current availability. Data sources included:
• Save the Elephants (STE) - in addition to generating the GPS collar data, STE had already digitised some map information and collected additional information during the 2002 field excursion to collect the GPS collars.
• Environment and Development Group - Reports and maps collected by the preliminary missions to Mali in 2003.
• Data collected by the Programme de Recherche Sahel-Soudan-Ethiopie (SSE) Mali-Norvege ‘Environnement et Developpement’ au Mali, (a major study supported by Norwegian Aid to provide baseline data for its three sub-projects: rational natural resource use; the role of wild plants in nutrition, health and handcrafts, household nutrition).
SSE data are the digital GIS data collected by the Norwegian project for the northern part of the elephant range over a period of five years. Two copies of these were left in the University of Oslo and with the Malian government. The former appear to have been lost during a fusion of the Geology and Geography Departments, while the latter exist on a ‘corrupted’ hard disk at DNCN in Bamako, and may be retrievable. This project was terminated prematurely and only the soil map was published. There is a dwindling supply of A3 black and white hard copies of some of the other data layers, however are no hard copies of others such as settlements and roads.
These data are of good quality and represent extensive ground-truthing effort which would enormously enhance any GIS analyses performed by this project. Some of the simpler ‘point’ data have been re-digitized by the STE team in Nairobi. The more complex data such as the vegetation and soil maps would take extra effort or could be re-digitised in a simpler form, if the SSE data cannot be obtained from the computer in Bamako.

Assemblage et analyse préliminaires des données SIG
Iain Douglas-Hamilton et Susan Canney
Save the Elephants
Février 2005

Introduction
Un rapport complet des déplacements de trois éléphants suivis à l’aide de la technologie SIG entre mars 2000 et juillet 2001 se trouve dans le document intitulé The Last Sahelian Elephants de Blake et al (2002). Ce rapport indique les déplacements saisonniers et les vitesses et représente l’enregistrement le plus à jour de l’aire et de l’utilisation du Gourma par les éléphants. Toutefois, la taille de l’échantillon, soit trois animaux, est trop petite et la période de suivi trop courte pour décrire l’aire au complet, et les éléphants vivant dans la région du Gossi à l’est n’ont pas pu être suivis du tout. Avec le projet actuel, un accent très fort a été mis sur l’acquisition d’autres couches SIG et d’autres informations sur l’aire complète de ces éléphants. D’autres analyses des données de télélocalisation ont été faites en fonction des peuplements humains, des frontières administratives et des densités de populations humaines. Dans ce document, nous traitons des données supplémentaires recueillies en 2004 et de leur lien avec ce que nous savons jusqu’ici des déplacements et de l’aire de répartition des éléphants.
Ce rapport présente d’abord les progrès réalisés dans la compilation et dans l’organisation des données SIG. Ce travail a permis l’évaluation de la qualité et de la disponibilité des données. Les autres sections documentent l’information supplémentaire produite à l’aide des données recueillies en 2004. Elles sont suivies de conclusions provisoires et des travaux de suivi requis.
2. Compilation des données SIG
2.1 Collecte et génération de données
Les données recueillies sont récapitulées dans le Tableau 1, avec leurs sources et disponibilité. Les sources sont les suivantes :
• Save the Elephants (STE) – outre la génération des données des colliers GPS, STE a déjà numérisé certaines informations de cartes et a recueilli d’autres informations lors des excursions sur le terrain de 2002 pour recueillir les colliers GPS.
• The Environment and Development Group (EDG) – Rapports et cartes recueillis par les missions préliminaires au Mali en 2003.
• Données recueillies par le Programme de Recherche Sahel-Soudan-Ethiopie (SSE) Mali-Norvège Environnement et Développement au Mali, (étude importante appuyée par l’Aide norvégienne pour fournir les données de référence de ses trois sous-projets : utilisation rationnelle des ressources naturelles, le rôle des plantes sauvages dans la nutrition, santé et artisanat, nutrition des ménages).
Les données SSE sont les données SIG numériques recueillies dans le cadre du projet norvégien dans la partie nord de l’aire de répartition des éléphants sur une période de cinq ans. Deux exemplaires en ont été remis à l’université d’Oslo et au gouvernement malien. Le premier de ces deux exemplaires semble avoir été perdu lors d’une fusion des départements de géologie et de géographie, alors que le second se trouve sur un disque dur « défectueux » à Bamako, et pourrait être récupéré. Ce projet a pris fin prématurément et seule la carte pédologique a été publiée. Il existe une provision de plus en plus faible d’exemplaires papier noir et blanc A3 de certaines des autres couches de données, mais il n’existe aucun exemplaire papier d’autres données comme les colonies de peuplement et les routes.

Douglas-Hamilton, I., Bhalla, S., Wittemyer, G., Vollrath, F.
Behavioural reactions of elephants towards a dying and deceased matriarch
(2006)

The extent to which elephants hold behavioural traits in common with human beings is relevant to the ethics of how we treat them. Observations show that elephants, like humans, are concerned with distressed or deceased individuals, and render assistance to the ailing and show a special interest in dead bodies of their own kind. This paper reports helping and investigative behaviour of different elephants and their families towards a dying and deceased matriarch. We make use of long-term association records, GPS tracking data and direct observations. Records made around the time of death, shows that the helping behaviour and special interest exhibited was not restricted to closely related kin. The case is made that elephants, like human beings, can show compassionate behaviour to others in distress. They have a general awareness and curiosity about death, as these behaviours are directed both towards kin and non-related individuals.

Douglas-Hamilton, I., Burrill, A.
Using elephant carcass ratios to determine population trends
African Wildlife: Research and Management, pp. 98-105
(1991)

Many African elephant populations have declined over the last two decades (Douglas-Hamilton. 1987). In most census zones, as the number of elephants decreases, the number of dead elephants increases. By counting both live and dead elephants a carcass ratio can be derived. This is the proportion of dead elephants to all elephants dead and live, and has been used as an index of relative elephant mortality (Douglas-Hamiton and Hillman, 1980).

In this paper successive counts of dead and live elephants in central, east, and southern Africa have been used to plot elephant trends against carcass ratios. It was found that the carcass ratio was correlated with the rate of decrease over a 4-yr period. The model was applied to new census data from Selous and Kilombero and found to give a close prediction of actual trends. The model was then tentatively applied to census zones in Tanzania where only a single count had been made. It suggested that 2 of the 16 regions surveyed had stable elephant populations, but that several areas (such as Maasai Steppe and Tabora) were undergoing rapid declines in elephant numbers.

The model suggested that Serengeti in 1977 had probably already suffered a 21% decline in the previous 4 yr, but that the decline outside the park had been more severe at 57%. Ruaha national park in 1977 it suggested had increased by 7% over the previous 4 yr, but had decreased by 9% in the surrounding areas. Selous game reserve in 1976 had a probable increase of 35% inside the protected area and a decrease of 13% outside. Thus use of the model suggests that both the Ruaha and the Selous were undergoing compression of elephants in that period. Since that period, major declines have occurred in all these protected areas (Borner and Severre, 1984; Douglas-Hamilton et al., 1986; Dublin and Douglas-Hamilton, 1987).

Douglas-Hamilton, I., Krink, T. & Vollrath, F.
Movements and corridors of African elephants in relation to protected areas
Naturwissenschaften 92: 158-163
(2005)

Understanding how mammals satisfy their need for space in fragmenting ecosystems is crucial for ecosystem conservation. Using state-of-the-art global positioning system (GPS) technology we tracked 11 focal African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Kenya at 3-hourly fix intervals and collected between 34 and 406 days per individual.

Our recordings gave a high spatio-temporal resolution compared to previous studies and allowed novel insights into range use. The actual ranges of the tracked elephants are smaller than usually represented. Moreover, the ranges in our sample were complex and not confined to officially designated protected areas, except where fenced. All the unfenced elephants in our sample had distinct 'home sectors' linked by 'travel' corridors.

Within each home sector the elephants concentrated in favourite 'core zones'. Such core zones tended to lie in protected areas whereas corridors typically crossed unprotected range. Elephants moved significantly faster along corridors than elsewhere in their range, which suggests awareness of danger outside the protected area. We conclude that understanding the complex use of an animal's range is crucial for conservation planning aiming to balance animal interests with those of human beings that co-habit in their range.

Musth in male African elephants, Loxodonta africana, is associated with increased aggressive behavior, continuous discharge of urine, copious secretions from the swollen temporal glands, and elevated androgen levels. During musth, bulls actively seek out and are preferred estrous females although sexual activity is not restricted to the musth condition. The present study combines recently established methods fecal hormone analysis with long-term observations on male-female associations as well as the presence and intensity of physical signals to provide a more detailed picture about the physical, physiological, and behavioral characteristics of different states of sexual activity in freeranging African elephants. Based on quantitative shifts in individual bull association patterns, the presence of different physical signals, and significant differences in androgen levels, a total of three potential sub-categories for sexually active bulls could be established. The results demonstrate that elevations in androgen levels are only observed in sexually active animals showing temporal gland secretion and/or urine dribbling, but are not related to the age of the individual. Further, none of the sexually active states showed elevated glucocorticoid output indicating that musth does not represent an HPA-mediated stress condition. On the basis of these results, we suggest that the term “musth” should be exclusively used for the competitive state in sexually active male elephants and that the presence of urine dribbling should be the physical signal used for defining this state.

This thesis is about the patterns, determinants and consequences of human-elephant interaction in Laikipia District in northern Kenya. Laikipia is located outside of formally protected areas, supports a range of land use types and harbours Kenya’s second largest elephant population comprised of over 3,000 animals. I use interdisciplinary methods and multiple scales of spatial analysis to examine elephant distribution, persistence and interactions with people in this human landscape.

At a course scale, results from several data sources show that elephants occur across almost 50% of Laikipia District and, intriguingly, are relatively evenly distributed across locations under cultivation, settlement and livestock production. At a finer scale, however, results from over a 100 km of ground transects, show that the relative abundance of elephants varies in relation to specific forms of human activity, in particular the risk of mortality presented by human occupants to elephants.

Sexual dimorphism in size in the African savanna elephant, Loxodonta africana, is pronounced. Allometric differences between the sexes lead to dissimilar nutritional demands, which result in sex related distinctions in feeding ecology. This extension of the Jarman-Bell Principle to an intra-specific level has been referred to as the Body Size Hypothesis (BSH).

This study established whether different nutritional requirements of elephant size/sex classes resulted in functional distinctions in feeding ecology between elephant bull groups and family units. Plant based surveys on woody species were conducted at the feeding sites of both bull groups and family units of elephants during the dry season period of resource limitation within the Associated Private Nature Reserves of South Africa. Although similar in terms of plant species composition, the diets of bull groups and family units differed in the plant parts ingested. Family units frequently debarked and defoliated woody plants while bulls tree-felled and engaged in rhizophagy more frequently than cows.

Adult bulls had greater bite and break diameters and also fed at significantly higher heights than family units. The management implications of the feeding habits of bull groups as opposed to family units are considered. Furthermore, plant and faecal samples were collected at the feeding sites of both social groups to determine whether diet quality measures differed between them. Near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) proved to be a time and cost effective analysis technique when applied to ecological research. NIRS also accurately determined gender in free ranging elephants from faecal samples.

Diet quality measures did not differ significantly between elephant groups although family units utilised plant species high in sugar and low in fibre content. Bulls accepted plant species with a high calcium content. In dry months largeadult bulls had significantly lower faecal phosphorus levels together with higher fibre levels than adult females, thereby providing some support for the BSH.

Although various factors confounded the interpretation of faecal nitrogen and calcium levels, the results nevertheless suggested that large-adult males ingested diets of poorer quality than adult females when resources were limited. A dry season dietary shift to browse was confirmed by carbon isotope analysis of faecal samples. Finally, the results of this study were compared with those of a similar study conducted within the Kalahari woodlands and a conceptual model was developed to draw comparisons between the sex and age-related feeding behaviour in elephants among diverse savanna ecosystems.

FORAGE QUALITY AND BARK UTILISATION BY THE AFRICAN ELEPHANT (Loxodonta africana) IN SAMBURU AND BUFFALO SPRINGS NATIONAL RESERVES, KENYA
Ihwagi Festus Wanderi
M.Sc. Thesis University of Nairobi
2008

ABSTRACT
Foraging behavior of elephants with respect to debarking of woody species was
investigated in Samburu and Buffalo Springs National Reserves, Kenya. Acacia elatior was
the most preferred species followed by Acacia tortilis. Both A. elatior and A. tortilis
dominate the woody vegetation accounting for over 80% of all woody plants. Debarking
levels varied in different parts of the reserves and this was attributed to elephants’ densities
and the ultimate influence of endaphic factors on species assemblages. Species diversity
indices were negatively correlated with salinity indicating a direct influence of salinity on
plant community structure. Both Acacia tortilis and A. elatior have the highest tolerance to
salinity and occur almost exclusively in saline areas. Debarking was highest during the dry
months just before the rains.
Through chemical analysis of bark samples collected from trees utilized at various
intensities, the influence of bark mineral content on elephant’s debarking behavior was
assessed. Samples were analysed for Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), Calcium
(Ca), Magnesium (Mg), Sodium (Na), Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn), Zinc (Zn) and Copper
(Cu). The most preferred and abundant species, A. elatior had significantly higher nutrient
elements than A. tortilis, the second most abundant. Debarking was positively correlated with
levels of N, P, K, and Zn. Of these, crude protein (N) had the greatest influence on debarking
behavior. Soil samples were collected in the sites and analyzed for physical properties and
content of the above elements as well. Site differences in soil mineralogical content
influenced bark nutrient content significantly in this study as there was significant positive
correlation between nutrient content in bark and in soil samples from each plot. Phosphorus
content was found to be high in soil but remarkably low in bark despite its significant
correlation with debarking behavior. Aridity of the area, high soil pH and coarse soil texture
contributed to generally low nutrient content of soil and subsequent unavailability of the
nutrients to plants.

The Samburu people of northern Kenya have co-existed with elephants since time immemorial.  The Samburu-elephant co-existence is facilitated by local knowledge gained through real experiences from direct interactions with, and actual observation of the elephant’s natural behaviour. The experiences are interpreted and coded through existing traditional belief systems and permeated to the community and descending generations through the vibrant oral system in the society.  The knowledge is an integral part of the co-existence.

 

The Samburu perceive elephants in terms of individuals and individual groups rather than a population.  Individual elephants have meaningful and significant characters.  The Samburu perception is different from that of other organizations, past and present, interested in the elephants inhabiting Samburu District.  The activities of these organizations regard elephants in terms of population.

 

Events such as poaching, law enforcement against poaching, and conservation have barely changed the cultural perception of elephants in the Samburu society.  Through their programmes of action, each and every one of the elephant interest groups claims an ownership of elephants in different ways.

 

The people regard elephants as moral beings capable of hurting and being hurt. As a result, elephants attain a higher moral status in the Samburu society than any other animal, including livestock. As moral beings, the study shows that the Samburu perceive the concept of ownership as a form of slavery and exploitation of elephants.  To Samburu, owning a moral being is immoral or constitutes an immorality and therefore conscripts ‘the being’ to a lower moral order. 

 

The Samburu perceptions on the elephant are challenging to environmental education.  Adopting the local perception about elephants ensures the implementation of meaningful and respectable programmes.  This is important not only to the Samburu people but for elephants and elephant conservation in the district.

African elephants run from the sound of disturbed bees

Lucy E. King, Iain Douglas-Hamilton  and Fritz Vollrath

 Current Biology Vol 17 No 19. R832

2007

 

Encroaching human development into former wildlife areas [1] is compressing African elephants into ever smaller home ranges, causing increased levels of human– elephant conflict [2]. African honeybees have been proposed as a possible deterrent to elephants [3]. We have performed a sound playback experiment to study this hypothesis. We found that a significant majority of elephants, in a sample of 18 well-known families and subgroups of varying sizes, reacted negatively — immediately walking or running away — when they heard the buzz of disturbed bees, while they ignored the control sound of natural white-noise. Whether the observed response was the result of individual conditioning or of learning by social facilitation remains to be established. Our study strongly supports the hypothesis that bees — and perhaps even their buzz alone — may be deployed to keep elephants at bay.

This article examines the development and implementation of a grass-roots elephant conservation program based upon the Samburu people’s perceptions and knowledge of elephants in the areas surrounding the Samburu and Buffalo Springs National Reserves in northern Kenya. Ethnographic methods were used to understand these perceptions and demonstrated that strong customs and traditions for conserving wildlife, particularly elephants, exist among the Samburu people. It became evident that these customs are changing, given various factors in¯uencing Samburu culture and younger generations. The use of economic incentives is a widely accepted method to foster positive attitudes and behavior toward wildlife. The value of using ethnographi c methods to reinforce positive indigenous knowledge about wildlife, however, is underestimated. This case study highlights the signi®cance of using ethnographi c methods in community conservation program design. The article demonstrates that in local contexts where cultural perceptions and traditions toward elephants are largely positive, this is a viable approach for community-based wildlife management that is complementary to economic incentives programs.

Ivory Markets in the USA
Esmond Martin and Daniel Stiles

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report is the fifth in a series of surveys that depicts the status and trends of the elephant ivory markets in a
particular region of the world. This investigation covered the United States of America (USA) and Vancouver,
Canada. It differs significantly from previous studies of this trade by quantifying the nature and scale of the
market. The investigators made the survey between March and December 2006 and March and May 2007.
Seventeen cities and towns were selected for study based on their population size and wealth, and tourist
importance.
The purpose of the surveys is to enable CITES Parties and governmental and non-governmental wildlife
conservation bodies to assess the scale of national ivory markets, and hence their potential impact on elephant
populations. This initial round of surveys compared the data obtained with any existing figures to assess the
changes that have taken place and to suggest trends in the ivory markets.
CITES entered into force in the USA on 1 July 1975. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service
(USFWS), under the Secretary of the Interior, is both the CITES Management Authority and Scientific Authority
for the USA. The USFWS shares the responsibility for enforcing all US laws related to CITES and wildlife
conservation with the US Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. CITES
regulations and three federal laws mainly govern the ivory trade: The Endangered Species Act (ESA), the African
Elephant Conservation Act (AECA) and the Lacey Act. People can legally import only three categories of ivory
(with proper documentation) into the USA: antiques (items more than 100 years old), sport-hunted trophy tusks
from approved African countries, and pre-Convention (i.e. pre-July 1975) tusks.
The main findings of the USA survey were:
• The survey found 24,004 ivory items in the 657 outlets in the 16 towns and cities visited in the USA,
most of which probably were legally for sale.
• NewYork City had by far the most ivory for sale with 11,376 items, followed by San Francisco (2,777)
and Los Angeles (2,605).
• The USA appeared to have the second largest ivory retail market in the world after China/Hong Kong,
as determined by numbers of items seen for sale.
• Perhaps 7,400 ivory items, or nearly one-third of the total, may have been crafted after 1989 making
their importation illegal, but this estimate is tentative and should be treated with caution because of
the difficulties of dating ivory objects.
• The western USA, particularly Honolulu (Hawaii), San Francisco and Los Angeles (California),
appeared to have more post-1989 worked ivory for sale than the eastern cities.
• The size of the ivory market has declined since 1989, with many former businesses closing.
• In 1989, retail outlets or workshops sold most worked ivory. Now fewer outlets and workshops exist,
and buyers find an increasingly larger proportion of worked and raw ivory from Internet sites, some
of which are foreign based.
• The USA has a minimum of 120 full- and part-time ivory craftsmen. This is down from an estimate of
1,400 craftsmen in 1989.
• No large ivory factories remain: craftsmen are scattered throughout the USA working in small
workshops, usually at home.
• Craftsmen use mostly old, legal, raw ivory to manufacture new knife, gun and walking stick handles,
scrimshaw pieces, cue stick parts and jewellery. They often use broken or damaged ivory items for
restoration work.
• The country consumes an estimated less than one tonne of raw ivory annually, down from seven
tonnes a year in the late 1980s. Craftsmen each use an average of 8 kg of ivory a year and say that the
USA has an adequate supply.
• No official stockpile of raw ivory exists and there has been no government census of private raw ivory
stocks in the USA.
• Raw ivory has increased little in price since the CITES ivory trade ban. Adjusting the 1990 price of
USD 110-154/kg for 1-5 kg tusks for inflation gives USD 152-212/kg in 2006 USD. The 2006/2007
price was USD 154-346/kg.
• Raw ivory is bought through craftsmen networks or on the Internet. Internet prices are higher than
person-to-person trading.

The Ivory Markets of Europe  (2005)
Martin, E. & Stiles, D.

This report is the fourth in a series of surveys that depict the status and trends of the elephant ivory markets in a particular region of the world. Previous surveys covered Africa (Martin and Stiles 2000), South and South East Asia (Martin and Stiles 2002) and East Asia (Martin and Stiles 2003). This report deals with five countries in Europe: Germany, the UK, France, Spain and Italy, in relative order of market scale. These countries were selected on the basis of the size of their economies, and thus buying power, and on informants’ reports in Africa and Asia of the principal European buyers of worked ivory in their regions. The surveys were carried out between April and November 2004, and the work was sponsored by Save the Elephants and Care for the Wild International. By a vote of 76 to 11, the Seventh Meeting of the Conference of the Parties (CoP) to CITES held in October 1989 transferred the African elephant to Appendix I. This meant that all international commercial trade in elephant products for CITES Parties was banned from 18 January 1990, except for a few temporary exemptions (TRAFFIC 1990). The Asian elephant had already been listed there since 1975. The addition of the African elephant meant that, with a few exceptions, no elephant ivory could be traded legally by CITES members from January 1990. The EU in 1989 prohibited the commercial imports of raw and worked ivory. The EU allows the import of ivory antiques, defined as items manufactured prior to 1 June 1947, and raw and worked ivory can be exported from EU countries subject to the destination country issuing CITES certificates authorizing the import. The domestic trade in raw and worked ivory is legal, subject to strict EU and national regulations based primarily on European Council Regulation 338/97 and European Commission Regulation 1808/2001. Each EU member state has enacted national legislation or made decrees to enable implementation of these and other related EU regulations concerning the import and export of elephant ivory. Details are presented in the country chapters.

The purpose of these ivory market monitoring surveys is so that CITES Parties and governmental and non-governmental wildlife conservation bodies can assess the scale of various national ivory markets, and thus their potential impact on elephant populations. In this initial round of surveys the data obtained are compared to any existing data to assess what changes have taken place from previous years, thus suggesting trends in the ivory markets. It is hoped that future surveys utilizing the same methodology will enable the standardized monitoring and assessment of country and regional ivory markets as called for by CITES Resolution Conf. 10.10 (Rev. CoP12). The assumption is made that elephant killing is correlated with the market demand for worked ivory. An increase in ivory sales will indicate a corresponding rise in elephant deaths to supply the ivory needed to satisfy demand, though releases of stored raw and worked ivory stockpiles must be taken into consideration. This factor has proved to be particularly important in Europe. The object of the surveys is to establish a set of baseline indicators of the ivory trade, so that future monitoring and assessment of the effectiveness of policies, laws and enforcement activities related to the internal and international trade in ivory can be carried out. The CITES policy related to elephants most in need of evaluation is that of permitting renewed and limited international sales of ivory to Japan from three southern African nations in 1999 (Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe), and from three more (Botswana, Namibia and South Africa) after the Monitoring of Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) system becomes operational, and certain other criteria are met (Reeve et al. 2003; Sakamoto 2004). The data presented in these reports will be instrumental in achieving this objective. Any changes in the trade indicators of key countries can be compared with elephant killing as signalled by MIKE, and with ivory seizures as recorded by the Elephant Trade Information System (ETIS), administered by TRAFFIC, to ascertain whether significant correlations occur.

The Ivory Markets of East Asia  (2003)
Martin, E. & Stiles, D.

This report presents the results of the third in a series of surveys that describe the status and trends of the elephant ivory trade in a region of the world, in this case East Asia. The previous reports covered Africa (Martin and Stiles 2000; Stiles and Martin 2001) and South and South East Asia (Martin and Stiles 2002; Stiles and Martin 2002).

The places surveyed for this report were Japan, Hong Kong, China, Taiwan, and South Korea. The purpose of these ivory trade surveys is to gather data on a set of indicators that portray the scale of the market in ivory in order that governments, wildlife conservation organizations and CITES representatives can appreciate the extent to which ivory is traded in selected countries. It is hoped that future surveys utilizing the methodology employed here will enable the standardized monitoring and assessment of country and regional ivory markets as called for by CITES Resolution Conf. 10.10 (Rev. CoP12).

The South and South East Asian Ivory Markets  (2002)
Martin, E. & Stiles, D.

The purpose of this report is first to present data on the current status of the ivory trade in the major markets of South and South East Asia. These data are needed by relevant government authorities, international and national wildlife conservation organizations and by the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in order to comprehend the scale of the ivory market in the respective countries today.

The second objective is to set a base line of ivory trade indicators from which to assess what is happening to the trade so that future monitoring and evaluation can be carried out on the effectiveness of policies, laws and enforcement activities relating to the internal and international trade in ivory. The change in base line indicator values can also be used to infer what is happening in respect to elephant killing, as more ivory on the market implies more dead elephants, except for ivory released from stockpiles.

This study focuses on the internal (domestic) trade of raw and worked ivory in selected towns and cities, but where appropriate we also present information that we gathered relating to cross-border trade. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) placed all Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) onto Appendix I in 1975, which means that all international trade in products from this species among Parties is banned...

Although the international trade in elephant ivory is banned by almost every country, there are significant quantities of tusks and carved items moving illicitly within Africa, especially in Central and West Africa, and from the continent to markets in eastern Asia. Within some African countries there is also a large internal (domestic) trade in ivory objects.

Unfortunately, prior to this study, there have been few statistics and little information available on the present-day ivory trade markets in Africa. With the CITES approved one-off sales of government ivory stocks in Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe in April 1999, it has become even more important to have reliable data on the prices and quantities of raw and worked ivory in the principal markets of Africa.

In two or three years after the 1999 one-off sales of ivory, data similar to that collected in this report should again be gathered and analyzed in each of the African countries for comparison. Only then can any changes in the trade be assessed accurately (if no other legal trade has been authorized in the interim). With this information, attempts can then be made to find out whether the one-off sales of legal ivory have caused ivory prices to increase, thus encouraging more elephant poaching.

Conserving African wildlife in human-occupied landscapes requires management intervention that is guided by a mechanistic understanding of how anthropogenic factors influence large-scale ecological processes. In Laikipia District, a dry savanna region in northern Kenya where wildlife share the landscape with humans and livestock, we examined why five of nine wild ungulate species suffered protracted declines on properties receiving the greatest conservation investment. Of 10 alternative causes examined, only an increase in predation, interacting with brief periods of high and low rainfall, was consistent with the timing, synchrony, duration and species composition of observed ungulate declines.

The Meru elephant population suffered unequivocally from poaching in the 1970s and 1980s and declined up to a tenth of its size in this period. Results from aerial surveys and an individual elephant identification study conducted between 1990 - 1999 showed that the Meru elephant population did not register a significant increase in population size during the 1990s. It was under the foregoing that the Kenya Wildlife Service embarked on a translocation programme aimed at restocking the park. The Kenya Wildlife Service was concerned at the apparent insignificant growth of the population. The present study therefore aimed to investigate factors responsible for the lack of significant increase of the elephant population. Basic individual elephant identification technique was used to study the demographic status of the population. Post-release monitoring of 50 elephants translocated from Sweetwaters Game Reserve in July 2001was also conducted.

Population Genetic Structure of Savannah Elephants in Kenya: Conservation and Management Implications
JOHN B. A. OKELLO, CHARLES MASEMBE, HENRIK B. RASMUSSEN, GEORGE WITTEMYER, PATRICK OMONDI, ONESMAS KAHINDI, VINCENT B. MUWANIKA, PETER ARCTANDER, IAIN DOUGLAS-HAMILTON,SILVESTER NYAKAANA, AND HANS R. SIEGISMUND

Journal of Heredity 2005:96(6):679–687

Abstract
We investigated population genetic structure and regional differentiation among African savannah elephants in Kenya using
mitochondrial and microsatellite markers. We observed mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) nucleotide diversity of 1.68% and
microsatellite variation in terms of average number of alleles, expected and observed heterozygosities in the total study
population of 10.20, 0.75, and 0.69, respectively. Hierarchical analysis of molecular variance of mtDNA variation revealed
significant differentiation among the 3 geographical regions studied (FCT 5 0.264; P , 0.05) and a relatively lower
differentiation among populations within regions (FSC 5 0.218; P , 0.0001). Microsatellite variation significantly
differentiated among populations within regions (FSC 5 0.019; P , 0.0001) but not at the regional levels (FCT 5 0.000;
P . 0.500). We attribute the high differentiation at the mitochondrial genome to the matrilineal social structure of elephant
populations, female natal philopatry, and probably ancient vicariance. Lack of significant regional differentiation at the
nuclear loci vis-a-vis strong differences at mtDNA loci between regions is likely the effect of subsequent homogenization
through male-mediated gene flow. Our results depicting 3 broad regional mtDNA groups and the observed population
genetic differentiation as well as connectivity patterns should be incorporated in the planning of future management
activities such as translocations.

Noninvasive Genotyping and Mendelian Analysis of Microsatellites in African Savannah Elephants
J. B. A. OKELLO, G. WITTEMYER, H. B. RASMUSSEN, I. DOUGLAS-HAMILTON, S. NYAKAANA, P. ARCTANDER, AND H. R. SIEGISMUND
Journal of Heredity 2005:96(6)

Abstract
We obtained fresh dung samples from 202 (133 mother-offspring pairs) savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Samburu, Kenya, and genotyped them at 20 microsatellite loci to assess genotyping success and errors. A total of 98.6% consensus genotypes was successfully obtained, with allelic dropout and false allele rates at 1.6% (n 5 46) and 0.9% (n 5 37) of heterozygous and total consensus genotypes, respectively, and an overall genotyping error rate of 2.5% based on repeat typing. Mendelian analysis revealed consistent inheritance in all but 38 allelic pairs from mother-offspring, giving an average mismatch error rate of 2.06%, a possible result of null alleles, mutations, genotyping errors, or inaccuracy in maternity assignment. We detected no evidence for large allele dropout, stuttering, or scoring error in the dataset and significant Hardy-Weinberg deviations at only two loci due to heterozygosity deficiency. Across loci, null allele frequencies were low (range: 0.000–0.042) and below the 0.20 threshold that would significantly bias individual-based studies. The high genotyping success and low errors observed in this study demonstrate reliability of the method employed and underscore the application of simple pedigrees in noninvasive studies. Since none of the sires were included in this study, the error rates presented are just estimates.

Effective population size dynamics reveal impacts of historic climatic events and recent anthropogenic pressure in African elephants
J . B. A. OKELLO, G. WITTEMYER,H. B. RASMUSSEN,P. ARCTANDER,S. NYAKAANA,I.DOUGLAS-HAMILTON and H. R. SIEGISMUND
Molecular Ecology (2008) doi: 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2008.03871.x
2008

Abstract
Two hundred years of elephant hunting for ivory, peaking in 1970–1980s, caused local extirpations and massive population declines across Africa. The resulting genetic impacts on surviving populations have not been studied, despite the importance of understanding the evolutionary repercussions of such human-mediated events on this keystone species. Using Bayesian coalescent-based genetic methods to evaluate time-specific changes in effective population size, we analysed genetic variation in 20 highly polymorphic microsatellite loci from 400 elephants inhabiting the greater Samburu-Laikipia region of northern Kenya. This area experienced a decline of between 80% and 90% in the last few decades when ivory harvesting was rampant. The most significant change in effective population size, however, occurred approximately 2500 years ago during a mid–Holocene period of climatic drying in tropical Africa. Contrary to expectations, detailed analyses of four contemporary age-based cohorts showed that the peak poaching epidemic in the 1970s caused detectable temporary genetic impacts, with genetic diversity rebounding as juveniles surviving the poaching era became reproductively mature. This study demonstrates the importance of climatic history in shaping the distribution and genetic history of a keystone species and highlights the utility of coalescent-based demographic approaches in unravelling ancestral demographic events despite a lack of ancient samples. Unique insights into the genetic signature of mid-Holocene climatic change in Africa and effects of recent poaching pressure on elephants are discussed.

Total Aerial Count of Elephants in Samburu-Laikipia EcoSystem: June 2002
Omondi P., Bitok E., Kahindi O., Mayienda R.
2002

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The total aerial count of elephants in Laikipia/Samburu ecosystem was carried out between 20th and 24th of June 2002, During the census, total counts of elephants, elephant carcasses and buffaloes was done. Livestock numbers (cattle and shoats) were estimated. As a MIKE site the count provided baseline data for monitoring poaching levels and elephant trends in the ecosystem. A total of 5,447elephants were counted during the survey (2,206 or 40.5% in Samburu and 3,241 or 59.5% in Laikipia).  The overall increase since 1999 in the entire ecosystem was 58.5%. The number of carcasses counted was 64 with only one being fresh and three recent while the rest were old or very old. The carcass ratio for the ecosystem was 1.16% - a decline as compared to 1999 (2.8%), however the percentage of recent carcasses rose from 6% to 6.25% (1999 and 2002 respectively). Two thousand and twelve buffaloes were counted in all the blocks with Laikipia having 1,745 or 86.7% while Samburu had only 267 or 13.3%. The number of buffalo decreased by 962 or 32.3% between 1999 and 2002. The highest decline (54.9%) was in Samburu while in Laikipia had a decline of 26.7%. As in 1999 (Kahumbu et al), Laikipia had the bulk of buffalo and all the rhinos (138) counted. Most of the livestock were in Samburu (67.5% of cattle and 67.2% of shoats) while the rest were in Laikipia.  A total of 138 rhinos were counted in the Laikipia/Samburu ecosystem. Block 22 (Solio) had the highest concentration (128 or 92.7%).

Endocrine and behavioral changes in male African elephants: Linking hormone changes to sexual state and reproductive tactics

Henrik B. Rasmussen, Andre Ganswindt, Iain Douglas-Hamilton, Fritz Vollrath

Abstract
Hormones play a crucial role in mediating genetic and environmental effects into morphological and behavioral phenotypes. In systems with alternative reproductive tactics (ART) shifts between tactics are hypothesized to be under proximate hormonal control. Most studies of the underlying endocrine changes behind ART have focused on !sh and amphibians rather than mammals and few have investigated the potential interaction between different endocrine axes in regulating shifts between conditional dependent tactics. Using a combination of endocrine and behavioral data from male African elephants we expand on our previously published analysis and show that the initial increase in androgens predates the behavioral shifts associated with reproductively active periods, supporting the role of androgens in activating sexually active periods in males. A strong interactive effect between androgens and glucocorticoids was found to determine the presence or absence of temporal gland secretion and urine dribbling, signals associated with the competitive reproductive tactic of musth, with elevated glucocorticoids levels suppressing the occurrence of musth signals. In addition external environmental conditions affected hormone levels. The presence of receptive females resul